9. Conclusions

Flexible learning is a general expression, implying great freedom for the learners to choose place, time, and method for their studies. It includes many different formats and environments for teaching and learning. Among them are the traditional classroom format and the one focused on in this thesis: collaborative learning discussions via forum systems (i.e., text-based electronic conferencing systems).

I have constructed a model as a framework for describing and analyzing flexible learning. It points at important factors influencing the learning outcome, and how these are mutually dependent. These factors are: (1) student, (2) content, (3) organization, (4) pedagogy, (5) technology, and (6) teachers role and support. This can help the teachers when creating a course outline. The content is not dealt with in this thesis.

Students attracted by the new possibilities with flexible learning may well come from a broader base than traditional groups of students. They will probably be stronger actors on the market place for education. Learning at a distance requires and encourages more intrinsically motivated and independent students. They might be less homogenous than a traditional class of students, and that implies that the teachers need to apply all the possibilities given by the technology to individualize the facilitation.

Introducing flexible learning in an organization might give rise to strong feelings and defence actions. In most cases, a developmental change will probably occur, i.e., a planned change, not including any fundamental shifts in paradigms. Most desirable would be a transformational change, which is planned and results in more radical conclusions for the organization. New time frames, the technology, and new groups of students might imply new needs of support, and thus impact the organization. Changes to the teachers roles will also call for organizational development.

The pedagogic approach advocated in this thesis is the sociohistoric perspective. This seems to suit the learning environment focused on here. Collaboration is an important component in the sociohistoric perspective. Collaborative learning via forum systems is possible but problematic. It is important to take into account the differences and similarities between face-to-face communication and computer-mediated communication (CMC). Important factors for collaborative learning to work effectively via forum systems are:

These characteristics can both augment and impede collaborative learning. The teachers´ role is to arrange for a fruitful learning environment. To do this, teachers need to take advantage of the possibilities given by the forum system, and to try to reduce the problems. The characteristics and consequences of CMC have lead me to deduce tips to teachers, and corresponding support functions that such a forum system ought to contain to aid the teachers and the learning process. Below, you find a list of these tips and support functions under the headings of the important factors, mentioned above.

9.2 List of Tips and Support Functions

9.2.1 Possibility to Communicate Effectively

a) No non-verbal or para-verbal cues

CC If communication is restricted to text-based communication, there is no body language or other non-verbal or para-verbal cues. This narrows the expressivity in the communication and can lead to misinterpretations (e.g., Chesebro & Bonsall, 1989). It also keeps the focus on the content (Hiltz & Turoff, 1993; Mantovani, 1996).

TT Try to establish an effective communication (a) between the teachers and the students, and (b) among the students. Be aware of the differences between text-based asynchronous CMC and face-to-face communication and how to compensate for the shortcomings. Especially, we have to realize many good effects of frequent and timely feedback. Be careful not to use irony or jokes that can be misunderstood.

b) Written language more formal than spoken

CC It can take some time for some members to adjust and feel confident with the language used in forum systems, but usually, people learn it within a few hour s use (Hiltz & Turoff, 1993; Adrianson & Hjertquist, 1988).

c) Delayed feedback

d) The grounding process may be impeded

CC With interlocutors located in different environments, communicating via a narrow medium, the grounding process may be impeded. If the "speaker" refers to a thing or a condition, e.g., the temperature in the room, this cannot be understood by the "listener" without thorough explanations. Without a common ground, misunderstanding is frequent.

TT If possible, arrange for a face-to-face meeting before the online discussion starts. Tell students to exchange some information about themselves, their context, and background (Männikkö & Fåhræus, 1997a; Fåhræus, 1999a).

e) Time delay can distort meaning and create parallel threads

FF The system should visualize the discussion threads, e.g., by indenting contributions. It should also make it possible to split an existing forum into two or more, and distribute the existing messages according to subject.

f) Meeting is possible without travelling

CC CMC can go on, independent of time and place. We do not have to find common time slots or to travel to meetings. This is especially convenient for those whose mobility is restrained by a handicap, etc. (Hiltz & Turoff, 1993).

g) Time for reading, writing, and reflecting

CC The permanent quality of the medium and the time independence can help those who need more time to find information, to formulate their thoughts, and to understand, sometimes simply because they are not yet quite familiar with the language used. Impaired people who have problems with talking or hearing can use this medium on more equal terms with other people (Study C).

h) Written text is more efficient to digest.

TT The advantage of fast text-reading should not be overestimated. Students might be tempted to copy texts from the Internet to insert in their contributions. The gain of time is lost if one has to read much more text to find the interesting one. Instead, encourage students to be brief, to make efforts in formulating relevant labels to their texts, and to structure the messages in a clever way to help the readers to find relevant information (Chesebro & Bonsall, 1989).

FF A system could provide the possibility to label a contribution with keywords (Jansson, 1995), or icons, symbolizing different kinds of contributions: e.g., own opinion, question, answer, something read or heard (Hietala, 1998).

i) Text-based communication stimulates abstraction

CC The fact that the CMC is text-based implies the opportunity for learners to practice text formulation (Sherman, 1995). Communication as such forces interlocutors to abstract their thinking (Schwartz, 1999). Text-based CMC puts even stronger stress on this abstraction and externalization of thought.

9.2.2 Motivation to collaborate

a) Difficult to engage in group work

CC At a distance, with no visual cues, it is more difficult to influence people's feelings and engagement. E.g., if students have lost their interest in the course, it is difficult for the teachers to activate them (Männikkö & Fåhræus, 1997a).

TT Formulate the task so that the knowledge of each member is valued, especially of those who are silent or inactive (Fåhræus, 1999c). Use intrinsic motivation as far as possible, e.g., by letting students choose tasks or topics to discuss that which interest them and give them knowledge that they can see the need of (Männikkö & Fåhræus, 1997a). Give tasks that force or stimulate students to communicate their thoughts and to collaborate. Such tasks are additive (group productivity is the sum of effort of all members) or conjunctive (all group members must succeed) (Sears et al., 1991). Consider different kinds of activities, such as seminars, debates, simulations or games, role play, discussion groups, project groups, trancript-based assignments, brainstormings, Delphi techniques, and nominal group techniques (from e.g., Paulsen, 1995, and Hiltz, 1995).

b) The process of bonding in a group may be impeded

CC Bonding is much easier if members have met face to face first. In a CMC situation, we have to compensate for this by presenting ourselves and our goals verbally. During the collaboration, cohesion is built by action, like giving help when required, and delivering in time (Study A).

TT If possible, start the course with a face-to-face session. Plan for a special start-up task. Introduce a forum for mutual help between students (Harasim et al., 1995; Study C). Stress the responsibility that each student has for the whole group (Study C).

c) Resources of all group members should be utilized

CC The possibility to communicate anonymously in CMC can stimulate collaboration. A shy person or a person with lower social status may be more active in a CMC situation than in a face-to-face situation. The anonymity does not have to be formal but perceived. Without visibility, participants can communicate without revealing their appearance. This might make some people more at ease (Hiltz & Turoff, 1993; Elen & Clarebout, 1998). Odd appearance that culturally is devalued as e.g., attractive , ugly , or old , is not influencing the communication (Hiltz & Turoff, 1993). According to some researchers, this property makes CMC more democratic than face-to-face meetings (e.g., Harasim et al., 1995). Old hierarchies and predefined roles seem to have less importance in CMC discussions. CMC groups are more disorganized, and still, the resources of all group members are utilized (Chesebro & Bonsall, 1989; Palme, 1981/1993). Other researchers (e.g., Ziv, 1996) claim that CMC does not eliminate hierarchies, but reflect the existing hierarchy in the organization.

TT Use anonymous communication restrictively and only when agreed upon. Create safe areas for questioning, without revealing the source (Fåhræus, 1999c). Declare the freedom for everybody to take the lead. Encourage changes of roles and procedures. Formulate the task so that the knowledge of each member is valued, especially those who are silent or inactive (ibid.).

d) Pull mode: write and read when and what you want

CC The independence of time, and the permanence of utterances, implies that you are not pushed by the system, instead you work in a pull mode : You express yourself when you want to and you choose when and what to read. The possibility for learners to self-pace activities is valued by independent persons, but this might impede the collaboration that has to go on with all members tuned to the same key.

e) Different views on technology for communication

CC The technological character of CMC can infuse a feeling of lack of humanity in some people. When the locality is a virtual space, the meaning of it is unclear and needs to be the subject of negotiations (Männikkö & Fåhræus, 1997b; Harrison & Dourish, 1996). Social norms and rules used in face-to-face situations are of no use here, according to Chesebro & Bonsall (1989).

TT Make sure that students have the required knowledge about the system and the technology. Introduce a discussion about the impact of the technology on human communication and the symbolic meaning of it. This discussion might result in consensus rules for the communication. Create a special place for social student interaction (Harasim et al., 1995; Study C).

f) Uncertainty about messages sent and received

CC The technology can create a feeling of uncertainty whether messages sent have been received by the intended auditorium and by no others. This uncertainty is caused by the fact that you not always get a confirmation of the recipient getting the messages, but also by the fact that technology sometimes fails.

TT If the system does not inform senders about who has read a message, you might have to arrange for people sending receipts. After a while, when people notice that it works and feel safe, this might not be necessary any more.

g) Desision-making less effective

CC In a decision situation or in goal-setting, when complex negotiation can be necessary, CMC is not very efficient. A tool with higher 'richness' is needed (Adrianson & Hjelmquist, 1988; Hansen et al, 1999; Chesebro & Bonsall, 1989).

9.2.3 Efficient Access to Information

a) Access to information resources and resource persons

CC Through the electronic medium, the learners can reach a host of resources, e.g., electronically saved documents, computing functions, and other human beings (Study C). Learners can get access to questions, answers and results from other learners (Chesebro & Bonsall, 1989). The asynchronous mode makes this possibility even more convenient because there is always time to find information from other sources before a question has to be answered.

TT Disseminate literature for a course over the medium or recommend sources on the Internet. Learners can search for information they need from databases, libraries, etc. (Harasim et al., 1995). The system becomes a vehicle for new exploration (Chesebro & Bonsall, 1989). Let the learning network extend into campus-wide and social interaction (Study C). Arrange for resource persons to be available when relevant, and inform and encourage students to use them (Männikkö & Fåhræus, 1997a; Harasim et al., 1995). Allow students to get access to answers to other students' questions and to their results or assignments (Harasim et al., 1995).

b) Possibility to go back and reconsider/reuse

CC The possibility to go back and reread can stimulate reflection regarding the content, the learning, and the group processes (McDaniel et al., 1996; Nuldén, 1999). Contributions (or texts from other sources) can be reused by commenting in the text or by re-writing parts of it.

TT If we tell students to go back and reflect on their own learning and group processes, they might be able to build meta-knowledge about how to learn and how to collaborate. This can be done through their writing diaries or by acting on other students' contributions (Study A; Sherman, 1995).

c) Help to the teachers to follow group communication

CC The permanence of the medium helps the teachers to follow the group communication, which normally is not possible when the group meets face to face (Study C). This implies a big work load on the teachers; but students can also help each other, thus freeing the teachers to do other tasks.

TT Decide if you need insight in the communication between members in a group. If you choose to follow the communication in a group, declare to the members that you are doing so and why. Be specific about your role, so that the students know if they are to report or put questions to you and if they can expect you to comment on their discussion process or on the topic discussed. Give enough feedback and support for students to feel confident and fade out support as soon as students manage without it (Harasim et al., 1995). There are many ways to follow up students' learning process. Formative assessment is preferred, since it allows us to perform corrective actions during the course. One way to follow up a group discussion is to read all contributions, but this is very time consuming. Other instruments are self-evaluation and peer-evaluation (Study A; Study B).

FF A system could support the teachers with simplifying feedback functions and overviews of students' contributions and the evaluations from teachers and students (Study B). It could also send reminders or other feedback to students, depending on their behaviour, e.g., those who have not delivered in time (Harasim et al., 1995).

d) Possibility to monitor course work

TT Monitor the course by planning tasks to be completed on set dates and by restricting some of the communication. E.g., the students can be prevented from access to each other's contributions until they have delivered their own (Harasim et al., 1995; Study C). Follow up by questionnaires, voting, and rating.

FF A system could support this by providing different kinds of forums, e.g., a drop box, automatically releasing the information at the right moment (Harasim et al., 1995). Resources can be reserved from a list by students or groups of students. Voting and rating functions can be provided.

e) Many topics can be treated in parallel, risk for information overload

CC Permanence and time independence allow for many topics to be treated in parallel. The permanence also allows the sender to address a message to many recipients. This is often efficient, but it implies the risk of information overload. In an electronic medium it is not possible to be quite sure about who has created a message and if someone else has changed it.

TT Create different forums for different topics. Minimize the risk of information overload by establishing a habit to write short contributions, labeled in an understandable way. Long contributions have a greater chance to be read if they are provided with a summary or at least an understandable label.

Part III: Conclusions, tips and future research